Analyzing the Role of Community Participation in Water Conservation and Pollution Control in Rural West Bengal: A Case Study of the Darjeeling District
Topic: Analyzing the Role of Community Participation in Water Conservation and Pollution Control in Rural West Bengal: A Case Study of the Darjeeling District
I. INTRODUCTION
Water is a crucial natural resource, especially in ecologically sensitive areas like the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. The increasing challenges of water pollution, depletion of clean water sources, and climate change have exacerbated the need for sustainable water management. Rural areas, where government infrastructure is often limited, rely significantly on local communities for maintaining water quality and ensuring sustainable usage. This research explores the impact of community involvement in water conservation and pollution control efforts in Darjeeling. Through a blend of doctrinal and empirical analysis, this study focuses on legal provisions, local initiatives, and administrative participation to understand the current status and scope of improvement. The active participation of villagers, NGOs, and panchayats is critical in mitigating pollution and preserving water resources for future generations. The study also assesses how these efforts align with national laws and environmental policies.
Keywords: Water Conservation, Community Participation, Pollution Control, Rural West Bengal, Darjeeling
1.1 EVOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM
The Darjeeling district, known for its tea plantations and hilly terrain, faces acute water-related challenges. The growing pressure of tourism, population increase, and agricultural demands has intensified the strain on natural water sources. In rural regions, rivers, springs, and ponds serve as lifelines for domestic, agricultural, and livestock use. However, contamination of these sources due to unregulated waste disposal, fertilizer runoff, and plastic pollution has worsened. Historically, local communities in West Bengal have played an essential role in managing water resources through traditional systems like jhora management (natural stream conservation) and community tank maintenance. Over time, however, such traditional practices declined due to urbanization, lack of awareness, and reduced community cohesion.
The Government of India and West Bengal state authorities have introduced multiple programs such as the Jal Jeevan Mission and National Rural Drinking Water Programme to enhance rural water supply. Yet, successful implementation depends heavily on ground-level support. Community participation in Darjeeling has shown promising outcomes where empowered groups have taken ownership of resource conservation. From rainwater harvesting to building check dams and sensitizing villagers about pollution control, local action has become crucial.
Given that legislation like the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, emphasizes pollution control and assigns roles to pollution control boards, its implementation in rural settings remains complex without active public support. In this context, evaluating the effectiveness of community-based water conservation initiatives becomes vital to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDG-6: Clean Water and Sanitation). Hence, the issue requires a detailed examination of legal frameworks, administrative mechanisms, and grassroots participation to propose sustainable solutions.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In Despite of the presence of environmental legislation and state-sponsored water projects, rural areas like Darjeeling struggle with deteriorating water quality and insufficient water supply. Pollution from domestic waste, agricultural runoff, and limited waste management infrastructure adds to the degradation of water bodies. Government efforts are often top-down, with limited coordination and participation from rural communities.
The absence of awareness and ownership among villagers hinders the long-term sustainability of water conservation programs. Many rural households are unaware of legal rights and responsibilities under environmental laws. Moreover, bureaucratic delays and inadequate monitoring limit the efficiency of pollution control mechanisms. The complex terrain of Darjeeling further poses logistical challenges.
Community-driven initiatives, however, show that localized participation can significantly enhance the outcomes of water conservation projects. Whether through user groups, water committees, or local self-government (panchayats), the potential for impact is high when people are engaged and empowered. This project investigates how such participation can be better integrated into formal mechanisms of environmental governance and evaluates the legal and policy frameworks that support or hinder such initiatives.
1.3 HYPOTHESIS
Community participation in water conservation and pollution control in rural West Bengal, particularly in the Darjeeling district, positively impacts water resource management. Local engagement can lead to more sustainable and culturally appropriate practices. However, the hypothesis also considers the limitations posed by socio-economic barriers, lack of legal awareness, and insufficient institutional support. Strengthening legal literacy, administrative coordination, and resource accessibility can improve the effectiveness of community-led environmental initiatives.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the key legal and policy frameworks governing water conservation and pollution control in India and West Bengal?
2. How effective has community participation been in addressing water-related challenges in rural Darjeeling?
3. What role do local institutions such as panchayats and NGOs play in mobilizing community efforts?
4. What legal and administrative reforms are required to enhance community participation in sustainable water management?
1.5 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To examine the legal and administrative framework governing water conservation and pollution control.
2. To analyze the extent and forms of community participation in rural water management in Darjeeling.
3. To identify the challenges hindering community-based initiatives.
4. To propose legal and policy recommendations for improving community involvement in environmental governance.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study contributes to the understanding of the interplay between law, governance, and grassroots activism in rural water conservation. It offers insights into how community participation can strengthen water security and environmental sustainability in remote regions like Darjeeling. The findings can guide policymakers, legal professionals, and civil society in designing participatory models that align with national goals and local realities.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study is confined to rural areas of the Darjeeling district, focusing on water conservation and pollution control measures. It covers legal, social, and administrative dimensions of community participation. The study uses both doctrinal research (laws, policies, judgments) and empirical insights (case studies, field interviews through calls) to understand the challenges and successes of water governance.
1.8 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The research is geographically limited to Darjeeling and may not represent all rural regions of India. Due to time constraints and resource limitations, the empirical component will focus on select villages. Language barriers and access to official data may pose challenges. The study also assumes a basic level of administrative cooperation during field research.
1.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This research uses a mixed methodology Analysis of statutory provisions, government policies, and case laws related to water conservation, such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Environment Protection Act, 1986; and relevant Supreme Court judgments. Field visits to select rural areas in Darjeeling, conducting interviews with villagers, panchayat members, and local NGOs to understand the role of community participation through phone call interview. A semi-structured questionnaire will be used to collect qualitative data.
1.10 CITATION STYLE ADOPTED
Bluebook Citation (21st Edition)
1.11 LITERATURE REVIEW
The primary literature informing this study includes academic books and government reports. The book "Water, Sovereignty and Borders in Asia" by Devleena Ghosh et al. provides a regional perspective on community responses to water crises[1]. "Environmental Governance and Sustainability" by Prakash and Sharma highlights participatory governance models applicable to rural India[2]. These texts emphasize the intersection of local agency and ecological resilience.
The 2021 Jal Shakti Ministry report titled "Status of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in India" presents critical data on government initiatives, gaps, and successes[3]. The National Institute of Hydrology's regional report for Eastern Himalayan states offers hydrological assessments that contextualize the Darjeeling district's challenges.
Together, this literature provides a foundation for understanding the synergy between policy frameworks and community action.
1.12 PROPOSED CHAPTERIZATION
1. CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
2. CHAPTER II: LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK
3. CHAPTER III: CASE STUDY OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN WATER CONSERVATION AND POLLUTION CONTROL IN DARJEELING DISTRICT
4. CHAPTER IV: DATA Analysis AND Observation
5. CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
6. Bibliography
7. Annexure I Questionary
8. Annexure II Responses
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Water is an indispensable natural resource critical for human survival, ecological balance, and economic activities. In the rural and ecologically fragile region of Darjeeling, West Bengal, the availability and quality of water have become significant issues due to environmental degradation, deforestation, urbanization, and the increasing demand from agriculture and tourism. While legal mechanisms and administrative frameworks exist to regulate water conservation and control pollution, their implementation has been limited and uneven. Against this backdrop, community participation has emerged as a pivotal factor in managing water resources sustainably in the rural areas of Darjeeling.
Historically, the people of Darjeeling depended on natural springs and jhoras (mountain streams), which were managed through traditional community-based systems. These decentralized systems ensured equitable access and maintenance through social norms rather than legal compulsion. However, the breakdown of these traditional systems, exacerbated by inadequate state intervention, has led to a water crisis in many parts of rural Darjeeling. Seasonal scarcity, contamination of water sources, and lack of infrastructure have worsened the situation.
Recognizing this, various local initiatives have attempted to revive community-driven water management practices. One such initiative is the Mount Valley Development Association, which has implemented community-based water distribution systems in parts of Darjeeling[4]. Another example is the ICLEI South Asia project, which introduced the "Community-Led Climate Resilient Water Security" initiative in Kurseong and Jorebunglow Sukiapokhri blocks. These models not only revived traditional practices but also involved capacity-building and institutional support[5].
Despite these successes, major challenges persist. These include lack of awareness, insufficient legal and financial support, limited coordination between government bodies and local stakeholders, and a lack of sustainable infrastructure. Furthermore, rural communities often lack the technical knowledge and legal awareness required to assert their rights and responsibilities in water management.
The study undertakes a comprehensive exploration of the role of community participation in water conservation and pollution control in rural Darjeeling. The objectives include examining existing legal frameworks, evaluating community-based initiatives, identifying challenges, and proposing legal and administrative reforms.
The doctrinal research approach involves an extensive analysis of legal statutes such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974[6], and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986[7], as well as relevant policy documents. Empirical case studies supplement the doctrinal study to highlight ground-level realities and practices.
The significance of this research lies in its potential to contribute to policy-making and capacity-building in the field of environmental law and governance. It provides insights into how legal and administrative systems can be improved to promote participatory and sustainable water management in rural and ecologically sensitive areas like Darjeeling. It also contributes to the discourse on decentralized governance and community rights in natural resource management.
Ultimately, the research seeks to bridge the gap between law and practice in environmental governance. By focusing on the Darjeeling district, the study highlights both the limitations and opportunities within the existing framework and suggests a more inclusive and participatory model for water governance.
CHAPTER II: LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK
The legal framework governing water conservation and pollution control in India is extensive, comprising constitutional mandates, environmental statutes, and judicial pronouncements. In the context of Darjeeling, understanding these frameworks is essential to analysing how community participation is facilitated or hindered in water management.
1. Constitutional Mandates
Article 48A of the Indian Constitution directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife[8]. Correspondingly, Article 51A(g) imposes a fundamental duty on citizens to protect the natural environment.[9] Though these provisions are directive in nature, they have significantly influenced environmental jurisprudence.
2. Key Environmental Statutes
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is the primary legislation for water pollution control in India. It established the Central and State Pollution Control Boards responsible for monitoring, regulation, and enforcement[10]. However, its implementation in rural areas like Darjeeling has been criticized for lacking infrastructural and administrative support.
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 provides an overarching legal framework empowering the Central Government to take measures for environmental protection[11]. Section 3 of the Act allows for setting standards and restricting industrial activities harmful to water bodies. Despite its wide scope, actual implementation is skewed towards urban-industrial areas.
3. Role of Local Governance
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 and the subsequent enactment of the West Bengal Panchayat Act, 1973 empower local bodies to manage water supply and sanitation[12]. Gram Panchayats are authorized to develop and maintain water sources and sanitation infrastructure. However, the institutional capacity and resources of Panchayats in Darjeeling are often inadequate.
4. Judicial Interventions
Indian courts have played a proactive role in water conservation. In M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held that the right to a clean and healthy environment is part of the right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution[13]. This judicial interpretation empowers citizens and communities to seek legal remedies against water pollution and unsustainable exploitation.
5. Policy Initiatives
The Jal Shakti Abhiyan, launched in 2019, emphasizes community participation in water conservation. It advocates for rainwater harvesting, afforestation, and watershed development[14]. Similarly, the Jal Jeevan Mission aims to provide functional tap water to every rural household and promotes community-led maintenance and governance of water resources.
In Darjeeling, the Community-Led Climate Resilient Water Security initiative supported by ICLEI South Asia aligns with these national policies. It involves participatory planning, revival of traditional water sources, and awareness programs[15].
6. Challenges in Implementation
Despite a robust legal framework, implementation in rural Darjeeling remains deficient due to logistical challenges, lack of awareness, and coordination issues. The absence of legal literacy among rural communities inhibits their active participation in environmental governance. Moreover, corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency often hamper effective policy enforcement.
7. Need for Legal Reforms and Institutional Support
There is a need to revise state-level rules to make them more inclusive of community rights. Legal reforms should aim at empowering Panchayats with greater technical and financial capabilities. Additionally, community-based water governance models should be formalized through guidelines and incentives.
Thus, while the legal and administrative framework is well-established, its effectiveness depends on ground-level implementation and active community involvement. Legal recognition of community-based water management models and enhanced coordination between stakeholders are essential for ensuring water security and pollution control in rural Darjeeling.
CHAPTER III: CASE STUDY OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN WATER CONSERVATION AND POLLUTION CONTROL IN DARJEELING DISTRICT
The Darjeeling District of West Bengal, nestled in the eastern Himalayas, is known for its unique ecology, tea plantations, and water scarcity issues despite heavy rainfall. This chapter explores specific instances of community-led efforts in conserving water and controlling pollution in rural areas such as Bijanbari, Mirik, and Sukhiapokhri.
1. Community-led Rainwater Harvesting Initiatives
In Mirik, villagers have revived traditional water harvesting structures known as "Dhunge Dhara" (stone spouts). Supported by NGOs like the Darjeeling Ladenla Road Prerna (DLRP), residents have installed rooftop rainwater harvesting systems to store water during the monsoon for use in the dry season. These grassroots efforts have increased household water availability and reduced dependence on tankers[16].
2. Stream Cleaning Drives and Local Monitoring
In Bijanbari and nearby hamlets, community members conduct periodic cleaning of the Rangbhang Khola stream, a vital freshwater source. Women's groups and school children participate actively in these drives. A monitoring system maintained by the community records pollution levels, especially plastic waste, and reports issues to local Panchayats[17].
3. Organic Farming and Waste Management
Communities in Sukhiapokhri have adopted sustainable agricultural practices by shifting to organic farming and composting. NGOs like the Centre for Mountain Dynamics have trained farmers in eco-friendly practices, which in turn reduce fertilizer runoff into nearby water bodies. These practices also strengthen water conservation by preserving soil moisture[18].
4. Panchayat and NGO Collaboration
The local Panchayats have played a pivotal role by incorporating water-related issues into Gram Sabha agendas. In many villages, collaboration between NGOs and Panchayats has led to successful implementation of low-cost sanitation systems that prevent fecal contamination of streams[19].
5. Challenges Faced
Despite these efforts, several challenges persist. Seasonal migration affects continuity in community participation. Government funding is often delayed or insufficient, and limited technical expertise restricts scalability. Moreover, the terrain and dispersed population make it difficult to construct large-scale water systems[20].
6. Lessons Learned
The case study highlights that community participation can significantly enhance water management, provided there is consistent support from civil society organizations and local governance. It also indicates the importance of combining traditional knowledge with scientific techniques for sustainable outcomes[21].
CHAPTER IV: DATA Analysis AND Observation
1. Gender Participation:
Male respondents: 60% (3 out of 5)
Female respondents: 40% (2 out of 5)
Shown in the pie chart above, indicating active roles of both genders, with males slightly more involved in formal committees or complaint mechanisms, while females are active in SHGs and education-based activities.
2. Water Sources:
Most commonly cited: springs and rainwater
Issues faced include seasonal shortages, pollution from plastic and chemicals, and unauthorized diversions.
3. Community Involvement:
All respondents were engaged in community-based conservation, through Forest Committees, SHGs, or school eco-clubs.
Participation includes awareness campaigns, spring revival, water testing, and local petitions.
4. Traditional Practices:
Every respondent cited traditional water conservation techniques, like bamboo pipelines, leaf funnels, and religious respect (e.g., spring puja).
5. NGO/Government Support:
4 out of 5 acknowledged some form of external support (WWF, Jal Jeevan Mission, Anugyalaya).
One respondent reported lack of effective governmental response.
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
Conclusion
This research finds that community participation in rural Darjeeling is a critical element for water conservation and pollution control. While the district benefits from rich rainfall, the challenge lies in managing and preserving water sources effectively. Grassroots initiatives, especially those led by women and youth, demonstrate the potential of collective action. Moreover, cooperation between civil society, Panchayati Raj Institutions, and government schemes fosters positive environmental outcomes[22].
The efforts documented show a trend towards localized water governance, informed by ecological sensitivity and socio-cultural cohesion. These findings reinforce the idea that effective water management cannot be a top-down process—it must empower local actors.
Suggestions
1. Capacity Building: Regular training programs in sustainable water use practices and pollution control should be offered to villagers, especially women and youth.
2. Financial Support and Incentives: Government schemes like the Jal Jeevan Mission should allocate funds specifically for community-driven models.
3. Integration with School Curriculum: Environmental education should be part of rural school programs to inculcate conservation ethics early.
4. Technology and Monitoring: Simple, low-cost water quality testing kits should be distributed to communities to help monitor pollution levels independently.
5. Policy Alignment: District planning should integrate community water management strategies within state-level water policies for coordinated action.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
1. Devleena Ghosh et al., Water, Sovereignty and Borders in Asia (Routledge 2019).
2. Prakash Sharma, Environmental Governance and Sustainability (Sage Publications 2021).
Articles
3. R. Mukherjee, "Grassroots Water Governance in the Eastern Himalayas", 46 Indian J. Env’t. L. 223 (2020).
Journals
4. S. Thapa, "Participatory Models in Hill Water Management", 12(2) J. Rural Dev. Stud. 101 (2022).
Websites
5. Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, Jal Jeevan Mission Dashboard, (https://ejalshakti.gov.in/jjmreport).
6. Darjeeling Ladenla Road Prerna, (https://dlrp.in/).
Field Location
7. Field visits to Bijanbari, Sukhiapokhri, and Mirik conducted between Jan–Mar 2025.
Reports
8. Ministry of Jal Shakti, Status of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in India (2021).
9. National Institute of Hydrology, Hydrology Report for Eastern Himalayan Region (2020).
Dictionary
10. Oxford English Dictionary (Online Ed. 2024), s.v. “conservation.
Annexure I Questionary
I. General Information (Demographics)
1. Name (Optional):
2. Age:
3. Gender:
4. Occupation:
5. Village/Gram Panchayat:
6. Educational Qualification:
7. How long have you lived in this area?
II. Awareness and Perception of Water Issues
8. What are the main sources of water in your village (e.g., rivers, springs, wells)?
9. Have you noticed any changes in water availability over the last 10 years?
10. Are you aware of any water pollution issues in your area? If yes, what are the sources?
11. Do you believe water conservation is important for your village? Why?
III. Community Participation
12. Are there any local groups or committees involved in water conservation or pollution control?
13. Have you or your family participated in any such activities? If yes, in what capacity?
14. What motivates people in your community to participate in these activities?
15. What are the challenges faced in encouraging wider community participation?
16. Are women and marginalized communities included in these conservation efforts?
IV. Government and NGO Involvement
17. Are there any government schemes or NGO programs on water conservation or pollution control active in your area?
18. How effective do you think these schemes have been?
19. Are local leaders (Panchayat members, teachers, etc.) supportive of community initiatives?
20. Do officials or experts consult with villagers before implementing new water-related projects?
V. Traditional and Local Knowledge
21. Are there any traditional practices in your community related to water conservation?
22. How relevant or effective are these traditional methods today?
23. Are such traditional knowledge systems being preserved and passed on?
VI. Impact and Outcomes
24. Have community-led initiatives resulted in measurable improvements in water quality or availability?
25. What changes (if any) have occurred due to community efforts in pollution control?
26. Can you share any success stories or examples of positive change in your village?
VII. Suggestions and Feedback
27. What more can be done to increase community participation in water conservation?
28. What kind of support (technical, financial, training) do you think is necessary?
29. How can youth and schools be involved in these efforts?
30. In your opinion, what is the most effective way to ensure sustainable water management in Darjeeling's rural areas?
Annexure II Responses
Respondent 1: Tenzing Sherpa (Male, 42, Farmer, Goke Busty)
Main source of water: Natural springs and stored tanks
Awareness of pollution: Yes, from detergent and plastic in nearby jhora
Community efforts: Member of Forest Protection Committee; involved in spring cleaning drive
Government/NGO help: Yes, Anugyalaya NGO provided technical help
Traditional practices: Uses bamboo pipelines and stone channels
Outcome: Water availability slightly improved; local stream cleaner
Suggestion: Need youth training and water audit by Panchayat
Respondent 2: Maya Tamang (Female, 36, Homemaker, Takdah Block)
Main source of water: Rainwater harvesting and piped supply
Water problem: Severe shortage in dry months; tankers needed sometimes
Community role: Active in Self Help Group that monitors illegal waste dumping
Govt schemes: Received water tank under Jal Jeevan Mission
Traditional knowledge: Grandparents used leaf funnels and terracotta pots
Change seen: Cleaner jhora, fewer water-borne diseases in monsoon
Suggestion: Women should be included in planning, not just in cleaning
Respondent 3: Arjun Rai (Male, 51, Tea Garden Worker, Lopchu)
Water source: Tea garden taps and spring
Issue faced: Sometimes oil and chemical leakage near water points
Participation: Attended awareness camp by Darjeeling Municipality
NGO role: WWF team visited and gave training
Traditional method: Rain pit for kitchen water reuse
Success: Small check dam built with community funding
Need: Monthly water testing and stricter rules on dumping
Respondent 4: Lhamu Bhutia (Female, 28, School Teacher, Sonada)
Pollution awareness: Yes – plastic wrappers and open defecation near spring
Community work: Runs eco-club at school; organizes water pledge day
Govt role: Some plans made but poor execution
Traditional practice: Spring puja every year to show respect
Change observed: Local children more aware; parents listen to them
Suggestion: Integrate water literacy in rural school curriculum
Respondent 5: Dawa Lepcha (Male, 60, Retired, Lamahatta)
Water source: Dhungey dhara (stone tap), dried up now
Problem: Big hotels divert water through private pipes
Effort made: Wrote complaint letters; helped map old water trails
Govt/NGO aid: No proper follow-up despite surveys
Traditional method: Planting bamboo near spring line to retain soil
Outcome: Some revival seen, but more collective action needed
Recommendation: Rainwater law at Panchayat level, penalties for misuse
[1] Devleena Ghosh et al., Water, Sovereignty and Borders in Asia (Routledge 2019)
[2] Prakash Sharma, Environmental Governance and Sustainability (Sage Publications 2021).
[3] Ministry of Jal Shakti, Status of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in India (2021).
[4] Mount Valley Development Association, Decentralization of Water Resource Management in Darjeeling (2019), (https://www.academia.edu/42388858).
[5] ICLEI South Asia, Fostering Climate Resilient Water Security in the Darjeeling Himalayas (2023), (https://southasia.iclei.org).
[6] The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, No. 6 of 1974, India Code (India).
[7] The Environment (Protection) Act, No. 29 of 1986, India Code (India).
[8] INDIA CONST. art. 48A.
[9] INDIA CONST. art. 51(g).
[12] The West Bengal Panchayat Act, No. 41 of 1973, India Code (India).
[13] M.C. Mehta v. Union of India, (1988) 2 S.C.R. 538 (India).
[14] Ministry of Jal Shakti, Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019), (https://jalshakti-ddws.gov.in).
[15] ICLEI South Asia, Fostering Climate Resilient Water Security in the Darjeeling Himalayas (2023), (https://southasia.iclei.org).
[16] Darjeeling Ladenla Road Prerna (https://dlrp.in/).
[17] Ministry of Jal Shakti, Status of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in India (2021).
[18] Prakash Sharma, Environmental Governance and Sustainability (Sage Publications 2021).
[19] R. Mukherjee, "Grassroots Water Governance in the Eastern Himalayas", 46 Indian J. Env’t. L. 223 (2020).
[20] S. Thapa, "Participatory Models in Hill Water Management", 12(2) J. Rural Dev. Stud. 101 (2022).
[21] Devleena Ghosh et al., Water, Sovereignty and Borders in Asia (Routledge 2019).
[22] Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India, Jal Jeevan Mission Dashboard, (https://ejalshakti.gov.in/jjmreport).
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